The Exploration of Language Evolution: A Study of Linguistic Divergence and Kinship in the Provinces of Sumatra Island

Riska Meliana; Irfa Luthfia Rahmani; Ana Yuliana; Rizqi Wafi

doi:10.26499/li.v44i1.860

Authors

Riska Meliana Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta
Irfa Luthfia Rahmani Universitas Bengkulu
Ana Yuliana Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta
Rizqi Wafi Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.26499/li.v44i1.860

Keywords:

glottochronology, lexicostatistics, Sumatra language

Abstract

This research investigates language evolution and linguistic kinship on the island of Sumatra. It also extends coverage to cognate languages in other regions. The languages studied include those spoken by various ethnic groups, namely Aceh, Gayo (Aceh), Batak Toba, Mandailing (North Sumatra), Rejang, Serawai (Bengkulu), Melayu Bangka, and Kayu Agung (Bangka Belitung). The main objectives are (1) to investigate how quantitative and qualitative analyses reveal kinship relationships between Acehnese (AT) and Gayo (GT) in Aceh, Batak Toba (BTT) and Batak Mandailing (BMT) in North Sumatra, Rejang (RT) and Serawai (ST) in Bengkulu, and Melayu Bangka (MBT) and Kayu Agung (KAT) in Bangka Belitung; (2) to identify and present empirical evidence to determine the divergence time for each language pair, and (3) to classify the studied languages into specific kinship groups and to identify the proportions of kinship relationships among languages in Aceh, North Sumatra, Bengkulu, and Bangka Belitung. This research used the lexicostatistical and glottochronological methods developed by Swadesh. Word kinship was evaluated using a list of 200 words. The results showed significant differences among the eight languages. The languages in North Sumatra Province and Bengkulu, for example, had a low similarity rate of 17%. The kinship percentage of local languages in Bengkulu and Bangka Belitung provinces averaged 50.5%. This places them in the “Language of Family” category, indicating a correlation in vocabulary despite variations in phonetic elements and dialects. Glottochronological calculations estimate the time of separation between the languages to range from 430 BC to 3,590 AD. This research makes a significant contribution and plays a vital role in supporting language documentation and preservation. It also helps to understand the social and cultural dynamics that influence language development in society.

References

A’laikum, A., & Ermanto. (2023). Kekerabatan Bahasa Minangkabau di Nagari Mungo Kecamatan Luak Kabupaten Lima Puluh Kota dan Bahasa Melayu Riau di Desa Buantan Besar Kecamatan Siak Sri Indrapura Kabupaten Siak. PERSONA: Language and Literary Studies, 2(2), 166–176.

Anayati, W., Wardana, M. K., Mayasari, M., & Purwarno, P. (2022). Lexicostatistics of Malay and Malagasy Languages: Comparative Historical Linguistic Study. English Review: Journal of English Education, 10(3), 875–882. https://doi.org/10.25134/erjee.v10i3.6690

Arokoyo, B. E., & Lagunju, O. O. (2019). A Lexicostatistics Comparison of Standard Yorùbá, Àkúrẹ́ and Ìkàrẹ́ Àkókó Dialects. Journal of Universal Language, 20(2), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.22425/jul.2019.20.2.1

Bast, F. (2015). Time Calibration of Linguistic Phylograms: A Molecular Clock for Historical Linguistics. Journal of Phylogenetics & Evolutionary Biology, 03(03). https://doi.org/10.4172/2329-9002.1000e115

Bastardas-Boada, A. (2018). The Ecology of Language Contact: Minority and Majority Languages. In The Routledge Handbook of Ecolinguistics (pp. 57–76). Routledge: Taylor & Francis.

Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2018). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Fifth Edition. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://spada.uns.ac.id/pluginfile.php/510378/mod_resource/content/1/creswell.pdf

Dardanila, Widayati, D., & Gustianingsih. (2023). Language Kindship of Jamee, Gayo, and Malay. Migration Letters, 21(2), 901–912. https://migrationletters.com/index.php/ml/article/view/6310

Dauletovna, A. N. (2024). Comparative Linguistics and Translation Studies. World of Scientific News in Science International Journal, Germany, Vol 2(Issue 2), 812–817. https://worldofresearch.ru/index.php/wsjc/article/view/310

Gapur, A., Siregar, D. S. P., & Pujiono, M. (2018). Language Kinship Between Mandarin, Hokkien Chinese and Japanese (Lexicostatistics Review). Aksara, 30(2), 301. https://doi.org/10.29255/aksara.v30i2.267.301-318

Ghanbar, H., Cinaglia, C., Randez, R. A., & De Costa, P. I. (2024). A methodological synthesis of narrative inquiry research in applied linguistics: What’s the story? International Journal of Applied Linguistics, ijal.12591. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12591

Gonzales, W. D. W. (2024). The Holistic Advantage: Unified Quantitative Modeling for Less-Biased, In-Depth Insights into (Socio)Linguistic Variation. Languages, 9(5), 182. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9050182

Granić, J. (2025). The (Non-)Acceptance of Otherness in Multilingual Settings (pp. 247–261). https://doi.org/10.18485/dpls_plucast.2025.6.ch15

Grant, A. P. (2010). On using qualitative lexicostatistics to illuminate language history: Some techniques and case studies. Diachronica, 27(2), 277–300. https://doi.org/10.1075/dia.27.2.06gra

Harianto, Zulfitri, & Amin, T. S. (2021). Lexicostatistics Study of Mandailing and Angkola Languages. Jurnal Educatio, 7(1), PP. 265-275. https://doi.org/DOI: https://doi.org/10.31949/educatio.v7i1.850

Hendrokumoro, Darman, F., Nuraeni, N., & Ma’shumah, N. K. (2024). The genetic relationship between Alune, Lisabata, Luhu, and Wemale (Western Seram, Indonesia): A historical-comparative linguistics approach. Cogent Arts & Humanities, 11(1), 2306718. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2024.2306718

Istanti, W., Seinsiani, I. G., Visser, J. G., & Lazuardi, A. I. D. (2020). Comparative Analysis of Verbal Communication Vocabulary between Indonesian-Afrikaans for Foreign Language Teaching. International Journal of Language Education, 4(3), 389–397. https://doi.org/10.26858/ijole.v4i3.15106

Kazakova, I., & Shakhnazaryan, V. (2020). Amazing Integration of Autochthonous Languages Into Allochthonous on The Example of Maorisms and Maisms. ICERI2020 Proceedings, 6711–6719. https://doi.org/10.21125/iceri.2020.1427

Kumala, S. A., & Lauder, M. R. (2021). Makna Toponim di Tangerang sebagai Representasi Keberadaan Etnis Cina Benteng: Sebuah Kajian Linguistik Historis Komparatif. Ranah: Jurnal Kajian Bahasa, 10(2), 304. https://doi.org/10.26499/rnh.v10i2.4048

Lim, W. M. (2024). What Is Qualitative Research? An Overview and Guidelines. ANZMAC: Australian and New Zealand Marketing Academy, 1(31). https://doi.org/DOI: 10.1177/14413582241264619

Liu, L. (2016). Using Generic Inductive Approach in Qualitative Educational Research: A Case Study Analysis. Journal of Education and Learning, 5(2), 129. https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v5n2p129

Liu, Y., Luo, W., & Wang, X. (2023). Exploring the relationship between students’ note-taking and interpreting quality: A case study in the Chinese context. Frontiers in Education, 8, 1157509. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2023.1157509

Mahriyuni, Pramuniati, I. & Maftuhah, R.A. (2023). Lexicostatistics of Javanese and Sasak Languages: Comparative Historical Linguistic Studies. Mimbar Ilmu, 28(1), 124–130. https://doi.org/10.23887/mi.v28i1.59797

Mahsun. (2017). Metode Penelitian Bahasa: Tahapan, Strategi, Metode, dan Tekniknya. RAJAWALI PERS.

Mahsun, Fernandez, I. Y., Laksono, K., Lauder, M. R., & Nadra. (2017). Bahasa dan Peta Bahasa di Indonesia. Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa,.

Mailani, O., Nuraeni, I., Syakila, S. A., & Lazuardi, J. (2022). Bahasa Sebagai Alat Komunikasi Dalam Kehidupan Manusia. Kampret Journal, 1(2), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.35335/kampret.v1i1.8

Makkawaru, & Hendrokumoro. (2022). The Genetic Relationship between Bugis and Kaili. Journal Educational Verkenning, Volume 3(Issue 1), Pages 017-027. https://hdpublication.com/index.php/jev

McLeod, W. (2009). A new multilingual United Kingdom? The impact of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Palgrave Macmillan.

McMahon, A., & McMahon, R. (2012). Lexicostatistics and Glottochronology. In C. A. Chapelle (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics (1st ed.). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0701

Meliana, R., Manalu, M. M. S., & Triyono, S. (2024). Tracing the Linguistic Roots of Malay and Batak Languages in Sumatra Island: A Historical Comparative Study. OKARA: Jurnal Bahasa Dan Sastra, 18(1), 142–164. https://doi.org/10.19105/ojbs.v18i1.12865

Muñoz, J. (2018). De la glotocronología a la filogenética: Estado de la cuestión y los nuevos desarrollos en la metodología de clasificación lingüística. Revista de Investigación Lingüística, 21, 170–184. https://doi.org/10.6018/ril.21.367611

Nefaa, A. (2023a). Genetic relatedness of Tunisian Sign Language and French Sign Language. Frontiers in Communication, 8, 1201148. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2023.1201148

Nefaa, A. (2023b). Genetic relatedness of Tunisian Sign Language and French Sign Language. Frontiers in Communication, 8, 1201148. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2023.1201148

Nixon, C. (2022). Constructing Language and Comparative Linguistics. Bibliotex Digital Library.

Ntelu, A., & Djou, D. N. (2017). The Language Family Relation of Local Languages in Gorontalo Province (A Lexicostatistic Study). Journal of Arts and Humanities, 6(11), 48. https://doi.org/10.18533/journal.v6i11.1285

Oksanen, J. (2024). Designer-aligned Automated Interview Note-taking. Aalto University School of Science: Master’s Programme in International Design Business Management (MSc). https://aaltodoc.aalto.fi/items/eba3a690-c00f-4140-a026-b5f38e729bec

Onuoha, C. E., & Esther, C. (2020). Lexicostatistics Comparison of Standard Igbo and Achi Dialect. Journal of Chinese & African Studies (JOCAS), 3(1), 51–62. https://nigerianjournalsonline.com/index.php/JOCAS/article/view/4653/4517

Parmini, N. P. (2024). The Genetic Relationship Between Balinese and Madurese. International Journal of Education, Vocational and Social Science, 03(01).

Parmini, N. P., Mawa, I. W., Soper, I. W., Suparta, I. M., Sueni, N. M., & Temaja, I. G. B. W. B. (2023). The Genetic Relationship Between Balinese and Madurese. International Journal of Education, Vocational and Social Science, 2(1), 283–295. https://doi.org/10.99075/ijevss.v2i01.169

Petroni, F., & Serva, M. (2011). Automated Word Stability and Language Phylogeny*. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics, 18(1), 53–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/09296174.2011.533589

Rahmawati, R. (2022). Proto Language Relationship with Mandailing Language. Randwick International of Education and Linguistics Science Journal, 3(2), 362–367. https://doi.org/10.47175/rielsj.v3i2.482

Rakgogo, T. J., & Mandende, I. P. (2023). Lexical similarities between Khelobedu dialect and Tshivenḓa and Sepedi languages. Literator, 44(1). https://doi.org/10.4102/lit.v44i1.1910

Rama, T., & Wichmann, S. (2020). A test of Generalized Bayesian dating: A new linguistic dating method. PLOS ONE, 15(8), e0236522. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236522

Ratcliffe, R. R. (2020). The Glottometrics of Arabic: Quantifying Linguistic Diversity and Correlating It With Diachronic Change. 11(1), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1163/22105832-01001100

Reagan, T. (2021a). Historical Linguistics and the Case for Sign Language Families. Sign Language Studies, 21(4), 427–454. https://doi.org/10.1353/sls.2021.0006

Reagan, T. (2021b). Historical Linguistics and the Case for Sign Language Families. Sign Language Studies, 21(4), 427–454. https://doi.org/10.1353/sls.2021.0006

Rozov, N. (2022). Towards the Multistage Ecosocial Theory of Glottogenesis: Modern Evolutionary Concepts, Principles, and Extension of the Nomological Approach. Open Journal for Studies in Philosophy, 6(2). https://centerprode.com/ojsp/ojsp0602/coas.ojsp.0602.02049r.html

Schoonenboom, J. (2023). The Fundamental Difference Between Qualitative and Quantitative Data in Mixed Methods Research. Forum : Qualitative Social Research (Sozial Forschung), Volume 24, No. 1, Art. http://www.qualitative-research.net/

Setiawan, L. G. I. P. S. (2020). Hubungan Kekerabatan Bahasa Bali dan Sasak dalam Ekoleksikon Kenyiuran: Analisis Linguistik Historis Komparatif. Jurnal Inovasi Penelitian, 1(1), 27–30. https://doi.org/10.47492/jip.v1i1.44

Sovacool, B. K., Axsen, J., & Sorrell, S. (2018). Promoting novelty, rigor, and style in energy social science: Towards codes of practice for appropriate methods and research design. Energy Research & Social Science, 45, 12–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2018.07.007

Starostin, S. (1999). Comparative-historical linguistics and Lexicostatistics. Starlingdb.Org. https://starlingdb.org/Texts/Starostin_Glotto.pdf

Starostin, S. A. (2000). Comparative-historical linguistics and lexicostatistics,” in Time Depth in Historical Linguistics (C. Renfrew, A. McMahon, and L. Trask, Vol. 1). Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.

Swadesh, M. (1952). Lexicostatistic dating of prehistoric ethnic contacts. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc, 452–463.

Swadesh, M. (1954). Perspectives and Problems of Amerindian Comparative Linguistics. WORD, 10(2–3), 306–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/00437956.1954.11659530

Swadesh, M. (1955). Towards greater accuracy in lexicostatistic dating. Int. J. Am. Linguist, 21, 121–137. https://doi.org/10.1086/464321

Tantri, A., Saddhono, K., & Mulyono, S. (2024). Kekerabatan Bahasa Jawa dan Bahasa Madura dalam Kajian Linguistik Historis Komparatif. DIALEKTIKA: Jurnal Pendidikan Bahasa Indonesia, 3(2), 75─84. https://journal.peradaban.ac.id/index.php/jdpbsi/article/view/1847/1160

Tao, Y., Wei, Y., Ge, J., Pan, Y., Wang, W., Bi, Q., Sheng, P., Fu, C., Pan, W., Jin, L., Zheng, H.-X., & Zhang, M. (2023). Phylogenetic evidence reveals early Kra-Dai divergence and dispersal in the late Holocene. Nature Communications, 14(1), 6924. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-42761-x

Troike, R. C. (1969). The Glottochronology of Six Turkic Languages. International Journal of American Linguistics, 35(2), 183–191. https://doi.org/10.1086/465053

Virella, P., & Woulfin, S. (2024). Tell me about your trauma: An empathetic approach-based protocol for interviewing school leaders who have experienced a crisis. Qualitative Research Journal. https://doi.org/10.1108/QRJ-09-2022-0121

Williams, S., & McWilliams, K. (2024). “Just to Jog My Memory”: An Examination of Forensic Interviewers’ Note-taking Behaviors and Perceptions of Notes With Child Witnesses. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 08862605241243346. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605241243346

Zafar, D. (2023). ISSN:XXXX-XXXX Analysis the Studies into Comparative Linguistics. 1(3).

Zafar, D. (2024). Analysis the Studies into Comparative Linguistics. European Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Digital Economy, 1(2). https://journal.silkroad-science.com/index.php/JAIDE

Zhang, M., & Gong, T. (2016a). How Many Is Enough?—Statistical Principles for Lexicostatistics. Frontiers in Psychology, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01916

Zhang, M., & Gong, T. (2016b). How Many Is Enough?—Statistical Principles for Lexicostatistics. Frontiers in Psychology, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01916

Zulham, Rahim, Abd. R., & Agus, M. (2022). Kekerabatan Bahasa Makassar dan Bahasa Selayar: Analisis Leksikostatistik dan Glotokronologi. Gema Wiralodra, 13(1), 215–232. https://doi.org/10.31943/gw.v13i1.215